If I could time travel, I probably wouldn’t choose Japan during the late 15th- to early 17th-centuries. Those were times of great upheaval and constant civil wars, as feudal lords (daimyo) staked out their fiefdoms, sent their samurai warriors into bloody battle, and gradually gained complete control over people living on their land. There is, however, a visual reminder of the Age of the Warring States that I do appreciate—Japan’s famous castles. They’re virtual history lessons into Japan’s tortuous past, clear into the 20th century. Suffice it to say I’ve learned all kinds of interesting facts related to feudal Japan simply by visiting its castles.
Japan’s famous castles include originals and replicas
Although thousands of castles were erected over the centuries as various daimyo vied for dominance, most have long vanished, victims of combat, revenge, lightning, fire, neglect, edicts ordering their destruction, and bombings during World War II. Of the hundred or so castle sites still extant, only 12 have survived as originals, best defined by their tenshu (donjon, or main keep).
Many more are remakes of famous castles, most with tenshu and often surrounding moats, stone walls, and parks or gardens. What makes them special to me is the history they tell. Castles in Osaka and Nagoya, for example, might be replicas, but they are vitally important in their roles toward the unification of Japan more than 400 years ago.
But regardless of whether original or replica, Japan’s famous castles usually top the must-sees in their hometowns and hold a special place in the hearts of locals. Although their tenshu might no longer dominate the skyline as they did during the days of the shogun, Japanese castles are not just their buildings. Many have grounds or moats lined with cherry trees. Volunteers might be dressed in period clothing ready for photographs, like this photograph taken at Kumamoto Castle.
Castles are also the focus of local cultural events and festivals, like the Hirosaki Neputa Festival in Hirosaki, Aomori Prefecture.
Many castles also contain history museums, with exhibits highlighting architectural features, castle life, relics of the era, and the daimyo who once lived there.
Even former castle towns now bereft of the castles that once defined them are proud of their feudal-era remnants, whether it’s a stone foundation where the tenshu once stood, castle walls, moats, a samurai house, or even just panoramic views from where the citadel once stood.
Sengoku Jidai–The Age of Warring States (mid 15th to early 17th centuries)
The rush to erect castles began around 1467, after discontent over rising taxes led increasingly to armed conflicts, as regional warlords staked out their fiefdoms in what was essentially a free-for-all. To protect their territories, daimyo erected thousands of fortifications, mostly wooden structures atop high mountains for easy defense.
Yet despite the ravages of war, the arts flourished among the upper class, including Noh drama, flower arranging, music, landscape gardening, fine arts, haiku, and the tea ceremony.
Oda Nobunaga (1543-1582) and the beginning of modern castle construction
Finally, after a century of countless civil wars and chaos, the first of three brilliant military strategists rose from the ranks in an attempt to end bloodshed and unify Japan. Although firearms had been introduced by Portuguese traders in 1543 and were quickly reproduced by the Japanese, Oda Nobunaga was the first to recognize gun superiority by widely supplying his armies with muskets, giving them an edge over samurai armed only with bows and arrows. As the proliferation of firearms spread, Oda understood that castles needed to evolve, too.
In 1576, Oda ordered the construction of the most modern castle to date, some 30 miles east of Kyoto on Lake Biwa. Instead of occupying the top of a mountain, his Azuchi Castle was built near transportation routes on a hill that provided room not only for his fortress but also for his mansion, elaborately decorated inside and out. Massive stone walls were erected to thwart gunfire, and instead of being the usual two or three stories, his tenshu was seven stories high.
Although Oda succeeded in unifying about a third of Japan under his rule, his ambitions were cut short when a general betrayed him, causing Oda’s death. That left two of his most trusted and skilled generals to complete the job, whose forces eventually turned on each other, resulting in the biggest battle in feudal Japan.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598) and the unification of Japan
Born to peasants, Toyotomi Hideyoshi rose to become one of Oda’s most illustrious generals, taking over after his lord’s death. With Azuchi Castle as an example, Toyotomi constructed more fortresses like it, including those in Hiroshima, Okayama, Matsumoto, and his principal residence in Osaka.
Toyotomi’s castles were erected mostly on wide, open plains as showpieces of strength and an architectural flexing of the muscles. Close to transportation routes for easy access and to better monitor travelers, castles served as administrative centers, surrounded by mansions belonging to loyal samurai and towns teeming with artisans and merchants. Among his many edicts were those restricting swords and armor only to the samurai warrior class. He also divided society into four rigid social classes–samurai, peasant farmers, artisans and merchants—orders that persisted in feudal Japan until 1867.
After crushing rebellion, Toyotomi accomplished what no man had done before–unifying Japan under one leader for the first time.
Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616), Japan’s greatest shogun
Toyotomi’s death left only his five-year-old son, Toyotomi Hideyori, as heir, overseen by a council of five regents. Quarrels and conflicts erupted, all captured in the miniseries Shogun, based on James Clavell’s novel of the same name and punctuated with conflicted loyalties, political intrigue, and lots of people committing seppuku (ritual suicide).
The turmoil culminated in the largest samurai conflict in Japanese history, the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 between Toyotomi loyalists and Tokugawa forces, with Tokugawa emerging victorious. In 1603, the emperor appointed him shogun. Wishing to operate far from Kyoto, the imperial capital, Tokugawa centered his shogunate in Edo (today Tokyo) and began building what would become the largest castle in the land.
Constructing Japan’s famous castles
Yet even after being declared shogun, Tokugawa ordered the construction of more castles, placed in strategic places to counter threats from disgruntled daimyo. He installed prominent members of the Tokugawa clan and other loyalists at their helms, including castles in Nagoya and Himej.
Castles contained many similarities, but to confuse and overwhelm invading armies, their designs and layouts differed, including false entrances that suddenly terminated in tricky dead ends or secret gates for surprise rear attacks.
Another feature of Japan’s famous castles was one of deception: tenshu that might look like they’re five stories from the outside might actually contain six, with a secret floor that could hide warriors during an attack.
Castles were also built with an intriguing number of defense mechanisms. The most common features were moats ringing the tenshu, armories, turrets, and the daimyo’s residence. Sometimes a series of moats stretched so wide, there was room for mansions belonging to family members and the most trusted samurai.
Other features included hidden rooms, deep wells so inhabitants could withstand a long siege, chestnut trees and other fruit-bearing trees that could provide food and firewood, holes built in the shapes of squares or triangles to allow guns or arrows to shoot through, and—my favorite—special chutes through which rocks or scalding water could be dropped upon enemies below. Staircases in the tenshu might be light enough to be hoisted up to halt enemy intrusions. Drums were used to communicate, whether to warn of invaders or simply give the time.
As if that weren’t enough, some castles were built with walls of stone that curved inwards, were so tightly fitted they afforded no footholds, and were topped by overhangs, making them virtually impossible to scale.
Rather than a place to live, the tenshu was the last stronghold, the place of refuge for the daimyo or shogun if attacked. The top floor always afforded sweeping panoramas, so that generals could have unobstructed 360-degree views and direct the battles raging around them.
Kurosawa Akira used Kumamoto Castle, shown here, for his epic dramas Ran and Kagemusha.
Yet despite measures undertaken by Tokugawa, his future could never be assured while Hideyori, Toyotomi’s son, was alive. After the Battle of Sekigahara, Hideyori was allowed to continue residing in Osaka and, as a gesture of good will, was presented with Tokugawa’s granddaughter for a wife. But fearing Hideyori was plotting against him, Tokugawa sent 155,000 soldiers to Osaka in 1615, not only annihilating the 55,000 Toyotomi insurrectionists but also destroying Osaka Castle. Hideyori, 22 years old, committed seppuku along with his mother. His eight-year-old son was captured and beheaded.
One of the things I find most fascinating about Japanese castles was their lack of ostentation compared to castles being built in Europe around the same time. Japanese lords and samurai weren’t the kind to surround themselves with plush furniture, fawn over plump statues in effeminate gardens, and wear powdery wigs to waltzes. Rather, they subjected themselves to the rigors of training and pursued such aesthetic pleasures as conducting ritualized ceremonies in rustic tea houses, viewing stone gardens, gazing at full moons, and composing haiku. Their residences were almost void of furniture, with beauty trained instead on painted screens, carved transoms and items used in everyday life, crafted with exquisite finesse.
The fate of Japan’s famous castles under the Tokugawas
After securing absolute power with the destruction of the Toyotomi clan, the Tokugawa shogunate ordered edicts to ensure his legacy and to guard against the threat of uprisings. For one thing, daimyo throughout Japan were ordered to destroy the castles in their domains, except for the one they were allowed to keep as a residence and administrative center. Hence, hundreds of castles were destroyed and abandoned. He also required that every daimyo contribute to the construction of his Edo Castle.
In another act of brilliance, the shogun decreed that all daimyo must construct second residences in Edo, where their wives and children were required to reside permanently, making them virtual hostages. But that’s not the end of it. Daimyo were required to alternate every year between Edo and their provincial residence, and a daimyo never traveled alone. He always brought a huge retinue of samurai retainers, cooks, porters and other servants.
[Photo: Shachiko, with the face of a tiger and body of a carp, were common decorations on the roofs of Japan’s famous castles and were thought to protect from devastating fires.]
With these measures, daimyo were forced to expend so much of their wealth, they didn’t have anything left to wage a rebellion. The Tokugawa shogunate went on to rule over Japan for the next 250 years, in an era known as the Edo Period (from the early 1600s to 1867). This is the period that most fascinates me, especially during the 215 years that Japan closed its doors to the rest of the world.
Further destruction of Japan’s famous castles
In 1854, American Commodore Matthew C. Perry forced Japan to sign a treaty allowing trade, in effect opening the country to the rest of the world. By 1867, when Emperor Meiji ascended the throne, it was clear that the feudal system was outdated, and the Tokugawa shogunate was abolished. Although some castles were destroyed when Tokugawa loyalists fought imperial forces, such as those in Osaka and Kumamoto, most of the rest were ordered to be destroyed because of their association with the Tokugawa shogunate and Japan’s feudal past. Only 19 tenshu survived, along with many stone walls and moats that were too mighty to dismantle.
World War II and Allied bombing wiped out seven of those 19 tenshu, including those in Nagoya, Hiroshima, Okayama, Fukuyama and Osaka, leaving only 12 original castles in Japan.
Although many early reconstructions of Japan’s famous castles were done in ferro-concrete, more recent replicas are accomplished using original materials like stone, wood, mud, plaster, and tile and built using historic techniques and trained artisans. I got to see that firsthand when Himeji Castle was renovated some years back. Plastering of the castle’s walls was carried out using traditional methods, with plaster made of salt-baked slaked lime, shell ash (produced by baking the shells of oysters, bloody clams, freshwater clams, and other clams), hemp fibers, and seaweed harvested in Hokkaido.
More of Japan’s Famous Castles
In addition to Japan’s famous castles mentioned above that are originals (Himeji, Hirosaki, Matsue, Matsumoto, and Matsuyama), the other 12 originals are Inuyama, Maruoka, Hikone, Bitchu-Matsuyama, Marugame, Kochi, and Uwajima.
But of the dozens of castles, both originals and remakes, that dot Japan, none is more famous–or more beautiful from afar– than Himeji Castle. Nicknamed White Heron Castle because its white walls supposedly resemble a white heron poised in flight over the plain, it is most striking under a blue sky, especially when the surrounding 1,000 cherry trees are in bloom. If you have time for only one castle in Japan, this World Heritage Site is my top pick.
Himeji Castle
Originating as a fort in the 14th century, Himeji Castle was enlarged in 1581 by Toyotomi Hideyoshi to serve as headquarters for one of his many military campaigns. It acquired its present form in the early 1600s by one of Hideyoshi’s generals (and a son-in-law of Shogun Ieyasu Tokugawa). With its three moats, a maze of confusing passageways leading to dead ends (meant to trap unsuspecting intruders), a secret entrance, and drop chutes to rain stones upon enemies, it boasted one of the most sophisticated defense systems in feudal Japan.
Today it remains Japan’s best example of an original castle, earning it Japan’s first listing as a UNESCO’s World Heritage Site in 1993. Its sprawling grounds include smaller, three-story keeps connected by covered passageways, and numerous turrets, gates, walls, and squares.
Edo Castle
The castle I wish still existed is Edo Castle, once located in what is now downtown Tokyo. Built over 30 years during the first half of the 1600s, it served as the headquarters of the Tokugawa shogunate and was one of the largest castles in the world. With an outer perimeter stretching 10 miles, it was protected by a whirl of moats radiating outward and guarded by 29 watch towers and 38 gates. In fact, the castle was so huge, there were several fortresses inside it, almost like castles inside a castle. There were garrisons for warriors, armories, horse stables, administrative buildings, and residences.
Naturally, the shogun lived in the safest, innermost fortress, the Honmaru, surrounded by its own moat and several watchtowers to protect his elaborate palace, the treasury, and gardens.
The tenshu, on the other hand, was built for show, constructed on a hill and at five stories the tallest building in Japan. While the castle complex was painted white, the donjon was jet black with a gold roof–sure to strike fear in anyone contemplating a resurrection. This was where the shogun would have taken refuge if Edo Castle had ever been attacked.
Instead, the tenshu met its demise in 1657, during perhaps the worst of 97 fires that ravaged the city during the Edo Period. Half the town burned down and about 108,000 people perished. Because the Tokugawas had such a firm grip on Japan by that time, the tenshu was never rebuilt. Instead, Fujimi Turret in the southeast end of Honmaru took over the function of the donjon. One of three original watchtowers still standing, it got its name because it’s thought to have provided a view of Mt. Fuji.
Today, the only place you can see Mt. Fuji from Tokyo is from a skyscraper or tower. Fires, earthquakes, the modernization of Tokyo during the Meiji Era and World War II all took their toll on the castle, leaving only the three towers, gates, stone walls, moats, the donjon’s stone foundation, and the East Garden.
Now serving as the spiritual heart of Tokyo and home of the Imperial Palace, the former site of Edo Castle is surrounded by soaring skyscrapers, today’s symbols of Japan’s power and prosperity.
For more on Japanese history and regions mentioned above, see my blogs Places to Visit Between Tokyo and Kyoto, Places to Visit Between Kyoto and Hiroshima, and Japan’s Top World Heritage Sites.
